A History of Italy

Episode Overview
Continuing our tour of the Italian peninsula in the early 1500s, we move north from the Kingdom of Naples, through the Papal States and Tuscany, across the Apennines, past Genoa, and into what is today the region of Piedmont.
In this episode we explore the key political players in the region — the Marquisate of Saluzzo, the Marquisate of Monferrato, and above all the Duchy of Savoy.
Once an expanding Alpine power controlling vital mountain passes, Savoy would find itself caught between the ambitions of France and the Habsburg Empire during the Italian Wars. The result was a dramatic collapse that nearly erased the duchy entirely — setting the stage for the unexpected rise of a remarkable new duke.
Piedmont: Geography and Historical Context
Piedmont today is one of Italy’s 20 regions and is divided into several provinces.
In the early 1500s, however, its territories were divided among multiple states, including:
The Marquisate of Saluzzo
The Marquisate of Monferrato
The Duchy of Savoy
Some areas, such as Novara, actually belonged to the Duchy of Milan at the time.

Strategically located near the Alpine passes, Piedmont became a crucial corridor during the Italian Wars, especially for French armies entering Italy.
The Marquisate of Saluzzo
Saluzzo maintained strong ties with France.
Its influence declined after the death of Marquis Michele Antonio, who was killed fighting for the French in southern Italy.
By 1548, the territory would be absorbed by France.
When the French were later expelled in 1601, Saluzzo became part of the Duchy of Savoy.

Piedmont in the Italian Wars
The region’s importance stemmed from geography:
France needed control of Alpine routes to access Italy.
Spain and the Holy Roman Empire sought to block those routes.
Control of Piedmont also offered Charles V a communications corridor between Spain and his northern European territories.

As a result, Piedmont became a constant battlefield for roaming armies and shifting alliances.
The Rise of Powerful European States
During this period, larger European monarchies were becoming increasingly centralized and powerful:
Expanding bureaucracies and legal systems strengthened state control.
Universities produced growing administrative classes.
The gradual separation of church and state helped consolidate royal authority.

Compared to these emerging powers, many Italian states — including Savoy, Genoa, Venice, and the Papal States — struggled to keep pace politically and militarily.
Early Attempts at Reform in Savoy
Reform efforts had begun earlier under Amedeo VIII, who:
Elevated Savoy from a county to a duchy.
Later abdicated to become Antipope Felix V.

However, after his abdication in 1440, a series of weaker rulers failed to continue his reforms.
A later attempt at modernization came under Philip II “the Fair”, assisted by his politically capable half-brother René “the Great Bastard.”
René sought administrative reform and arranged a politically significant marriage linking Savoy to the Habsburg dynasty, but his efforts ultimately stalled.
Charles II of Savoy: A Weak Ruler
The long reign of Charles II (1504–1553) marked a turning point for the duchy — unfortunately for the worse.
Although remembered as “Charles the Good,” the nickname reflected mildness rather than competence.
His rule was characterized by:
Indecisiveness
Poor diplomacy
Inability to balance relations between France and the Empire

He even failed to attend the coronations of Francis I of France and Charles V, missing crucial opportunities for diplomacy.
Growing Weakness
Savoy’s problems mounted quickly:
In 1508, Charles paid off invading Swiss troops rather than confronting them.
The city of Fribourg broke away from Savoyard influence.
The duchy’s economy was weak and dependent on taxation and donations.

When the Estates General met in 1517 and 1520, they refused financial support, leaving Charles unable to maintain a strong army.
Savoy Between France and the Empire
Despite claiming neutrality, Savoy increasingly leaned toward Charles V and the Habsburg Empire, influenced in part by the politically capable Duchess Beatrice of Portugal, sister of the empress.
This alignment initially paid off:
After the Battle of Pavia (1525), Savoy received territories in France.

But the alliance also brought problems:
Imperial troops flooded the duchy.
In 1526, a rebellion in Turin killed around 200 Spanish soldiers.

Savoy briefly returned to the French camp during the League of Cognac, before once again siding with Charles V.
The French Invasion of 1536
The dangers of Savoy’s shifting loyalties became clear when Francis I launched another campaign to seize Milan in 1536.
Viewing Savoy as hostile, the French invaded:
Savoyard forces offered little resistance.
Turin was captured.
Duke Charles fled to Vercelli.

The Collapse of Savoy
By the Peace of Crépy (1544):
Savoy had lost most of its territory.
Lands north of the Alps were gone.
Much of Piedmont, including Turin, was occupied.

A state that had expanded steadily for over four centuries — from Umberto Biancamano to Amedeo VIII — had nearly disappeared in less than a century.
Enter Emanuele Filiberto
What remained of Savoy passed to Emanuele Filiberto, the 25-year-old son of Charles II.
If the dynasty was to survive, he would have to reverse decades of decline.
History suggests he might succeed.
In Turin’s Piazza San Carlo, an equestrian statue commemorates his victory over the French at the Battle of St. Quentin — a reminder that Savoy’s story was far from over.
Looking Ahead
With Savoy nearly destroyed and the balance of power in northern Italy shifting once again, the stage is set for the rise of Emanuele Filiberto — a ruler determined to reclaim his dynasty’s lost fortunes.
And as we will see, his efforts would eventually help place the House of Savoy on the long road toward becoming the kings of Italy.

Posted Just now

Episode Overview
Having toured Spanish Sardinia and turbulent Sicily, we now complete our circuit of southern Italy by turning to the Kingdom of Naples.
Once secured for Spain by the legendary Gonzalo de Córdoba, Naples became one of the crown jewels of the Spanish Empire — wealthy, strategic, and politically delicate.
In this episode, we follow the kingdom from consolidation under Spanish rule through internal tensions, shifting viceroys, the Battle of Ravenna, and finally to the dramatic French siege of Naples in 1528 — a moment when the city came dangerously close to slipping from Spanish control.
Naples Under Spanish Rule
By 1505, Spanish control of Naples was nearly complete.
The city of Naples received special privileges compared to the rest of the kingdom:
Tax exemptions
Legal protections
Lower fixed prices on staple goods
All royal offices centralized in the capital

This preferential treatment helped Naples grow into one of the largest cities in Europe — rivaling Venice and Paris in population and prestige.
Social Balance and Political Tensions
A delicate equilibrium existed between:
The nobility
Merchants and professionals
The popular classes
Unlike Sicily, Naples allowed limited representation of non-noble groups.
Spanish governors requested repeated donatives (extraordinary tax grants), creating periodic friction.

Gonzalo de Córdoba and the Transition of Power
Gonzalo de Córdoba, the “Great Captain,” secured the kingdom but was recalled to Spain amid suspicions he harbored royal ambitions.
His successor, Juan of Aragon, Count of Ribagorza, briefly held the position.
From 1509 to 1522, real influence lay with Ramon de Cardona, who oversaw:
The transition from Ferdinand of Aragon to Charles V
Continued management of noble rivalries
Spanish dominance during key phases of the Italian Wars

The Battle of Ravenna (1512)
De Cardona commanded Spanish forces against the French under Gaston de Foix.
Though defeated, the French victory was short-lived due to Foix’s death on the battlefield.
Naples remained securely Spanish.

Charles V, Pavia, and Rising Tensions
Under Viceroy Charles de Lannoy, Naples witnessed:
The Battle of Pavia (1525)
The capture of French King Francis I
Charles V’s growing dominance triggered the formation of the anti-imperial coalition that would lead to the Sack of Rome.

But while Rome burned, Naples nearly fell.
The French Siege of Naples (1528)
After Lannoy’s death from plague in 1527, Ugo de Moncada — formerly viceroy of Sicily — took charge.
A Dire Situation
French forces under Odet de Foix, Count of Lautrec, invaded the kingdom.
Many barons welcomed the French.
A Franco-Genoese fleet blockaded the Gulf of Naples.
The countryside — and the harvest — fell under French control.

Moncada attempted to break the blockade and was killed in the effort.
Why Naples Did Not Fall
Despite appearances, several factors saved the city:
1. Powerful Defenses
Naples was protected by three major fortresses:
Castel dell’Ovo (on the sea)
Castel Nuovo (in the city)
Castel Sant’Elmo (overlooking from the Vomero hill)

Even if the French breached the city, holding it would be another matter.
2. Genoese Defection
The Genoese fleet switched sides — Spanish imperial trade interests proved more profitable than French alignment.
3. Plague
In a desperate move, Lautrec destroyed the Bolla Aqueduct, flooding surrounding marshlands. Combined with summer heat, this triggered a devastating outbreak of plague.
One of its victims: Lautrec himself.
With their commander dead and disease rampant, French momentum collapsed.
The Aftermath
Cities that had defected returned to Spanish allegiance.
Peace was reached in 1529 between Charles V, Francis I, the Pope, and Venice.
Punishment for rebellious barons was relatively restrained:
Some executions
Mostly confiscations
Eventually, a general amnesty

Naples remained Spanish.
Walking Through History: The Spanish City
The legacy of this period can still be explored today:
Start at Castel dell’Ovo along the sea.
Walk through Piazza del Plebiscito past the Teatro di San Carlo and Galleria Umberto I.
Stand before Castel Nuovo (Maschio Angioino).
Ride the funicular to Castel Sant’Elmo for sweeping views of Spaccanapoli.
Pass along Via Toledo and through the Spanish Quarters — neighborhoods established during this very period.

Looking Ahead: A New Viceroy
In 1532, one of the most influential and controversial viceroys arrived:
Pedro Álvarez de Toledo y Zúñiga
His tenure would transform Naples physically, politically, and socially — reshaping the city in ways still visible today.
But before we follow that story, we must turn north — far north — to events unfolding in the distant reaches of what would one day be called northern Italy.

Episode Overview
Having raced through the early 1500s following the Italian Wars, the Medici popes, Leonardo da Vinci, and the creation of the Medici duchy in Florence, it’s time to slow down and look at the parts of Italy we’ve left slightly out of focus.
In this episode, we take a tour of the Italian peninsula’s two great islands — Sardinia and Sicily — and the Kingdom of Naples’ wider Mediterranean context. Though often treated as peripheral, these territories were central to Spanish power in Italy and deeply affected by war, rebellion, piracy, and imperial ambition.

A Geographic Reset: Italy Beyond the Mainland
Italy consists of the mainland “boot” and two major islands: Sardinia (to the west) and Sicily (to the southwest).
Both islands are today among Italy’s 20 administrative regions, along with many smaller islands such as Capri, Elba, and Stromboli.
Unlike many mainland states, these islands experienced a very different political and social evolution under Spanish rule.


Sardinia Under Spanish Control
By the early 1400s, Sardinia was firmly under Aragonese—and later Spanish—control, remaining so until 1720.
The island was governed by a viceroy, often drawn from powerful local feudal families.
Two families, the Carroz and Cubello, dominated nearly half of the island’s feudal income.

Power, Cities, and Administration
Unlike mainland Italy, Sardinian cities never achieved full autonomy.
Urban centers such as Cagliari, Sassari, Alghero, Iglesias, and Oristano developed influential merchant and professional classes.
Only Cagliari and Sassari possessed formal statutes, inherited from earlier Pisan and Genoese influence.

Stability and Growth
Ferdinand and Isabella restored parliamentary assemblies and introduced a lottery-based electoral system that allowed limited participation by non-nobles.
Sardinia enjoyed a period of relative peace and modest economic growth.
Charles V visited only briefly, leaving governance largely to the viceroy.

A Quiet Role in the Italian Wars
Sardinia was mostly spared the violence of the Italian Wars, with one brief French occupation of Sassari in 1527.
The island served primarily as a strategic logistical hub between Spain and Italy.


Sicily: A More Volatile Island
Sicily had a larger population than Sardinia but remained under tight noble control.
Roman infrastructure was decaying, and political power was firmly in baronial hands.
Early attempts at power-sharing, such as in Messina, failed under noble pressure.


Spanish Rule and Rising Tensions
Sicily was ruled by a powerful viceroy, combining civil and military authority.
Under Ugo de Moncada, the island became a frontline bastion against North African Muslim powers.
Costly military campaigns, rising taxation, the arrival of the Spanish Inquisition, and endemic piracy increased social tension.


The Palermo Uprising of 1511
In August 1511, unrest exploded following an incident involving a Spanish soldier stealing bread from a young woman named Nina.
Her fiancé, Giovanni “Surciddu” Pollastra, chased the soldier, triggering a city-wide rebellion.
Hundreds of Spanish soldiers were killed, and their commander fled disguised as a woman.
Despite Surciddu’s attempts to calm the situation, he was arrested and executed, sparking further violence.


A Cycle of Revolts (1512–1522)
New taxes in 1512 ignited another rebellion, again violently suppressed.
After King Ferdinand’s death in 1516, Sicily entered a prolonged period of unrest marked by:
Anti-noble sentiment
Banditry in the countryside
Intensifying Arab raids along the coast

Leaders and Failures
Several short-lived administrations failed to restore order.
The rebel leader Gianluca Squarcialupo briefly seized power but proved incapable of governing.


Plague, Piracy, and Temporary Stability
Plague outbreaks from 1522 weakened both rebels and authorities.
The fall of Rhodes heightened fears of external invasion.
Viceroy Ettore Pignatelli, Count of Monteleone, eventually restored a fragile stability that lasted until his death in 1535.


Charles V Visits Sicily (1535)
In 1535, Emperor Charles V visited Sicily for the first time in 14 years.
He entered Palermo through a newly redesigned Porta Nuova, stayed in the city, and was reportedly captivated by it.
The visit boosted imperial prestige and momentarily soothed tensions—at least on the surface.


Closing Thoughts
Sardinia and Sicily reveal two very different faces of Spanish rule in Italy: one relatively stable and quietly strategic, the other restless, rebellious, and perpetually on edge.
Both islands remind us that the Italian Wars were not only fought on famous mainland battlefields but also shaped the lives of people far from Florence, Rome, or Milan—on islands that were anything but peripheral.
And as always, peace in early modern Italy rarely lasts long.

To celebrate the 200th anniversary episode, which coincided with the 8th anniversary, we decided to hear from you, dear constant listener to create a special episode to celebrate this great milestone with many more hopefully to come.
As well as greetings, we'll hear about:
Sieges vs Battles
Moving Michelangelo artwork
An influential writer at the court of pope Leo X
The legend of the heart of bricks hidden among the alleyways of Venice
A warning from the lovely town of Carpi
The story of the unsung police hero Salvatore and his role in the notorious 1984 train bombing by the Sicilian Mafia and far-right terrorist organisations
Enjoy!

Episode Summary
With Giovanni dalle Bande Nere gone, we return to Florence to witness the dramatic collapse of the centuries-old Florentine Republic and the emergence of Medici princely rule. Against the backdrop of the Sack of Rome, religious extremism, political infighting, and imperial intervention, this episode follows Florence’s final republican experiment and introduces one of its most controversial rulers: Alessandro de’ Medici, the first Duke of Florence.
Key Topics Covered
The Aftermath of the Sack of Rome (1527)
Pope Clement VII’s humiliation after the Sack of Rome by mutinous imperial landsknechts and the blow to Medici prestige.
The pope’s political failures, including his looming clash with Henry VIII and the broader collapse of Medici papal authority.
Florence’s growing disillusionment with Medici “informal rule” and the sense that the moment for change had arrived.

The Republican Revival in Florence
Early unrest during the passage of imperial troops and the damage to Michelangelo’s David.
The fall of Cardinal Silvio Passerini’s authority after the Sack of Rome.
The decisive confrontation involving Clarice de’ Medici and Filippo Strozzi that triggered the Medici flight from the city.
The rise of a new republican government under Gonfalonier Niccolò Capponi.
Factional divisions among the anti-Medici forces, from aristocratic moderates to radical, Savonarola-inspired religious extremists.
The extraordinary moment when Jesus Christ was proclaimed King of Florence in February 1529.

Siege, Resistance, and the End of the Republic
The Treaty of Barcelona (1529) between Clement VII and Charles V, sealing Florence’s fate.
The imperial siege of Florence and Michelangelo’s role—brief and reluctant—in strengthening the city’s defenses.
Internal betrayal and wavering leadership under Malatesta Baglioni.
Florentine defiance through ritual and sport: frozen-Arno games, Carnival football in Santa Croce, and cannon fire aimed at celebration.
Capitulation in August 1530 after famine and plague, and Clement VII’s intervention to prevent a sack.
The definitive death of the Florentine Republic.

The Rise of Alessandro de’ Medici
Alessandro’s appointment as Gonfalonier for life and later Duke of Florence, with authority imposed by imperial decree rather than civic choice.
Competing theories about his parentage and his nickname il Moro.
The transformation of Florence from republic to hereditary state.
Abolition of traditional republican institutions and creation of new councils loyal to ducal authority.

What Kind of Duke Was Alessandro?
His populist instincts and rapport with the lower classes, including public sports and personal modesty.
A strong commitment to justice, legal transparency, and accessible law codes.
Absolute rejection of republican freedom and ruthless suppression of dissent.
Confiscation of noble estates, exile extensions, and political repression to rebuild state finances.
His indulgent private life: hunting, luxury, perfumes, and a notorious sexual appetite that fueled opposition.

Opposition, Intrigue, and Assassination
The death of Pope Clement VII in 1534 and the loss of Alessandro’s greatest protector.
The emergence of Ippolito de’ Medici as an alternative claimant and his suspicious death in 1535.
Failed legal attempts to remove Alessandro, including a trial in Naples.
The betrayal by Lorenzino de’ Medici—friend, companion, and assassin.
The murder of Alessandro on the night of 6 January 1537 and the desperate secrecy surrounding his death.
The political vacuum left behind and the difficulty of founding a dynasty when its first duke dies so quickly.

Why This Episode Matters
This chapter marks a decisive turning point in Florentine—and Italian—history:
The final collapse of republican government in Florence.
The normalization of foreign domination in Italian politics.
The emergence of Medici rule not as behind-the-scenes power brokers, but as open, hereditary princes.

The question now is no longer whether Florence will be ruled by a Medici—but which Medici will rule it next.
If you’d like, I can also:
✔ tighten this into platform-ready podcast descriptions
✔ prepare a “Previously on…” recap
✔ draft transition notes leading into Cosimo I and the Grand Duchy of Tuscany
Just say the word.